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Evidence Library

Peer-reviewed publications and research underpinning Virridy's carbon credit programs. Our work is published in leading journals including The Lancet Planetary Health, Nature Communications, Science of the Total Environment, Communications Earth & Environment, World Development, and Environmental Science & Technology.

43
Publications
20+
Peer-Reviewed Journals
5
Research Programs

Carbon Markets & Climate Finance

6 publications

Research on leveraging carbon markets and climate finance mechanisms to fund water security infrastructure and incentivize sustainable water services globally.

Turning global water security research into policy and action
Two billion people live without access to safe drinking water while four billion experience water stress at least one month a year. This paper argues that research outputs alone cannot drive meaningful change without integration into actual policies, highlighting emerging opportunities to improve water security while reducing emissions through carbon credit mechanisms.
PLOS WaterClimate Finance
Carbon Farming in Türkiye: Challenges, Opportunities and Implementation Mechanism
Explores how carbon farming can strengthen agricultural sustainability while lowering greenhouse gas output in Türkiye, where farming contributed roughly 14.9% of national emissions in 2023. Proposes a digitally-enhanced measurement framework with region-specific approaches to reduce costs and encourage farmer participation in emerging carbon markets.
MDPI SustainabilityCarbon Markets
Applying Climate Reparative Finance Toward Water Security
Water insecurity is increasing globally as one of the first perceivable effects of climate change. Climate finance mechanisms offer the potential to redirect climate-damaging capital toward climate reparative water infrastructure and create sustainable, performance-based funding streams to incentivize safe water services globally.
Science of the Total EnvironmentClimate Finance
The potential of carbon markets to accelerate green infrastructure based water quality trading
Green infrastructure across the US could save $15.6 billion, 21.2 TWh of electricity, and 29.8 million tonnes of CO&sub2;e emissions per year while generating $679 million annually in carbon credit revenue to accelerate water quality trading.
Communications Earth & EnvironmentGreen Infrastructure
Decarbonizing Water: The Potential to Apply the Voluntary Carbon Market toward Global Water Security
Two billion people lack access to safe drinking water and the water sector contributes 10% of global emissions. Over 1.6 billion carbon credits could be generated per year from water security projects, potentially resulting in investments of more than $160 billion over the next decade.
ACS ES&T WaterCarbon Markets
Decarbonizing Water: Applying the Voluntary Carbon Market toward Global Water Security — Full Report
Commissioned by WaterAid's Resilient Water Accelerator, VCMI, and HSBC, this report identifies an achievable pathway to improving global water security through voluntary carbon markets, finding that over 1.6 billion tonnes of CO&sub2; could be saved annually in the water sector.
Mortenson Center & Castalia AdvisorsReport

Rwanda — Drinking Water Treatment

13 publications

Research from Virridy's pioneering carbon-credit-financed water filter and improved cookstove programs in Western Province, Rwanda — the first-ever UN CDM and Gold Standard programs earning carbon credits for water treatment.

Health, livelihood, and environmental impacts of the distribution of a carbon-credit-financed, large-scale water filter and improved cookstove programme in Rwanda
The Tubeho Neza programme found that carbon-credit-financed distribution of water filters and improved cookstoves significantly reduced childhood diarrhea by 29% and acute respiratory infection by 25%, while decreasing fuel use and associated environmental impacts.
The Lancet Planetary HealthRwanda
Effects of adding household water filters to Rwanda's Community-Based Environmental Health Promotion Programme
Integrating household water filters into Rwanda's existing CBEHPP sanitation and hygiene program significantly improved drinking water quality and reduced diarrheal disease prevalence in participating communities.
Nature — npj Clean WaterRwanda
Assessing the Impact of Water Filters and Improved Cook Stoves on Drinking Water Quality and Household Air Pollution: A Randomised Controlled Trial in Rwanda
A randomized controlled trial found that distributing water filters and improved cookstoves achieved a 97.5% reduction in fecal contamination of drinking water and a 48% reduction in cooking area air pollution.
PLOS ONERwanda
Designing and Piloting a Program to Provide Water Filters and Improved Cookstoves in Rwanda
This pilot achieved high uptake and sustained adoption of water filters and cookstoves through free distribution, behavior change messaging via community health workers, and a pay-for-performance model funded by carbon credits, maintaining over 90% adoption.
PLOS ONERwanda
A cost-benefit analysis of livelihood, environmental and health benefits of a large scale water filter and cookstove distribution in Rwanda
Health, livelihood, and environmental benefits of distributing water filters and cookstoves substantially outweighed programme costs, with fuel savings and averted healthcare costs representing the largest economic gains for rural Rwandan households.
ScienceDirectRwanda
Use, microbiological effectiveness and health impact of a household water filter intervention in rural Rwanda
LifeStraw Family 2.0 filters in rural Rwanda demonstrated high reported use and significant microbiological effectiveness in reducing E. coli contamination in stored drinking water, with associated reductions in self-reported diarrheal disease.
ScienceDirectRwanda
Study design of a cluster-randomized controlled trial to evaluate a large-scale distribution of cook stoves and water filters in Western Province, Rwanda
Describes the design of a cluster-randomized controlled trial evaluating the health impacts of distributing improved cookstoves and water filters across Western Province, Rwanda, serving as the methodological framework for the Tubeho Neza intervention.
ScienceDirectRwanda
Process evaluation and assessment of use of a large scale water filter and cookstove program in Rwanda
The distribution model using community health workers achieved high coverage and reported use of water filters and cookstoves, while identifying challenges including incomplete exclusive use and the need for ongoing behavior change support.
BMC Public HealthRwanda
Use of Remotely Reporting Electronic Sensors for Assessing Use of Water Filters and Cookstoves in Rwanda
Electronic sensors remotely transmitting data revealed that sensor-reported use of cookstoves and water filters was substantially lower than self-reported use, highlighting the critical value of objective digital monitoring for intervention programs.
ACS — Environmental Science & TechnologyRwanda
Integration of Household Water Filters with Community-Based Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion in Rwanda
Combining hardware distribution with existing community health infrastructure improved water treatment practices and offered a scalable model for achieving safe drinking water access in Rwanda.
MDPI SustainabilityRwanda
Geospatial-temporal, demographic, and programmatic adoption characteristics of a large-scale water filter and improved cookstove intervention in Western Province, Rwanda
Geospatial and temporal analysis found that geographic accessibility, household demographics, and community health worker engagement were key determinants of sustained adoption of water filters and improved cookstoves across Western Province.
Taylor & Francis — Cogent EngineeringRwanda
Assessing use, exposure, and health impacts of a water filter and improved cookstove distribution programme in Rwanda
Comprehensive assessment of household-level use of water filters and cookstoves, personal exposure to drinking water contaminants and household air pollution, and associated health outcomes among women and children in rural Rwanda.
Semantic ScholarRwanda
Lessons from Rwanda on tackling unsafe drinking water and household air pollution
The Tubeho Neza program demonstrated that distributing water filters and improved cookstoves at scale can reduce diarrhea by 29% and respiratory infections by 25% in children under five, offering lessons for sustainable health interventions in low-income settings.
The ConversationRwanda

Kenya — Drought Resilience & Water Security

9 publications

Research from Virridy's DRIP (Drought Resilience Impact Platform) program across northern Kenya, covering groundwater monitoring, machine learning for drought early action, and water service delivery.

Reducing drought emergencies in the Horn of Africa
Drought emergencies in the Horn of Africa can be mitigated by investing in resilience efforts that make safe water reliably available at strategic groundwater locations, combining early warning data, policy reform, and improved rural water maintenance.
Science of The Total EnvironmentKenya
Estimating groundwater use and demand in arid Kenya through assimilation of satellite data and in-situ sensors with machine learning toward drought early action
Combines in-situ sensor data from 69 boreholes with satellite data and machine learning to produce the first operational spatially-explicit sub-seasonal estimates of groundwater demand in arid Kenya, achieving up to 80% validation accuracy for dry season forecasts.
Science of The Total EnvironmentKenya
A contribution to drought resilience in East Africa through groundwater pump monitoring informed by in-situ instrumentation, remote sensing and ensemble machine learning
Sensors on 480 electrical groundwater pumps combined with remote sensing and machine learning classified pump functionality with 82–84% sensitivity. Integration into repair services could improve drought-period pump uptime from 60% to nearly 85%.
Science of The Total EnvironmentKenya
The Drought Resilience Impact Platform (DRIP): Improving Water Security Through Actionable Water Management Insights
DRIP combines in-situ sensors, remote sensing, and early warning systems to shift drought response from reactive emergency measures to preventive groundwater infrastructure management, currently monitoring water supplies serving approximately 3 million people.
Frontiers in ClimateKenya
Improved Drought Resilience Through Continuous Water Service Monitoring and Specialized Institutions — A Longitudinal Analysis of Water Service Delivery Across Motorized Boreholes in Northern Kenya
Analysis of ~120 motorized boreholes across five counties in Northern Kenya where 2.5 million people depend on groundwater found that strategic drought asset sites ran on average 1.31 hours less per day than non-strategic sites, highlighting service delivery gaps.
MDPI SustainabilityKenya
Quantifying increased groundwater demand from prolonged drought in the East African Rift Valley
Analysis of 221 water points serving over 1.34 million people revealed a 23% increase in borehole runtime following weeks with no rainfall, underscoring the imperative to maintain groundwater borehole functionality during drought.
Science of The Total EnvironmentKenya
Surveyed from Afar: Household water security, emotional well-being, and the reliability of water supply in the Ethiopian lowlands
A survey of 469 households in Afar, Ethiopia found that water insecurity and water-related emotional distress are strongly correlated and significantly associated with limited water service levels, with lower insecurity linked to increased borehole pump reliability.
ScienceDirectKenya / Ethiopia
Electronic sensors to monitor functionality and usage trends of rural water infrastructure in Plateau State, Nigeria
200 remotely reporting electronic sensors deployed across 397 groundwater sites in Nigeria over 12 months achieved 91.7% overall accuracy in predicting water-point functionality, with hand-pump and electrical borehole accuracy exceeding 93%.
ScienceDirectNigeria / IoT Monitoring
Who pays for water? Comparing life cycle costs of water services among several low, medium and high-income utilities
Life cycle cost analysis of four water utilities in the US, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Cambodia found that none spend enough on capital maintenance to sustain service levels, revealing stark disparities in water service financing with funding gaps of $7–$43 per capita.
World DevelopmentWater Economics

Technology & Digital Monitoring, Reporting & Verification

11 publications

Research on Virridy's digital monitoring, reporting, and verification technologies supporting carbon credit programs, water quality monitoring, and systems strengthening.

Digital Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification Technologies Supporting Carbon Credit-Generating Water Security Programs: State of the Art and Technology Roadmap
Reviews digital MRV technologies for water security programs that generate carbon credits, assessing the current state of the art and proposing a technology roadmap to improve credibility and scalability of water-based carbon credit methodologies.
ACS — Environmental Science & Technology LettersDigital MRV
Lume — Continuous Water Quality Monitoring Technology
The first single-unit fluorimetric sensor for continuous microbial contamination monitoring, measuring tryptophan-like fluorescence to estimate E. coli levels rather than relying on delayed laboratory grab sampling.
thelume.aiWater Quality
Demonstration of Tryptophan-Like Fluorescence Sensor Concepts for Fecal Exposure Detection in Drinking Water in Remote and Resource Constrained Settings
A low-cost, continuously monitoring tryptophan-like fluorescence sensor demonstrated close correlation between TLF and E. coli in model waters, capable of detecting “high risk” fecal contamination levels (>10 CFU/100 mL).
MDPI SustainabilityWater Quality Sensors
Assessing the Functionality of a Water-Vending Kiosk Network with High-Frequency Instrumentation in Freetown, Sierra Leone
High-frequency instrumentation monitoring 2,947 kiosk-days in Freetown found functionality levels of 34% operational, 30% offline, and 35% empty, with statistically significant determinants of water supply, demand, and storage identified.
HeliyonIoT Monitoring
Development and Validation of an In Situ Groundwater Abstraction Sensor Network, Hydrologic Statistical Model, and Blockchain Trading Platform
Satellite-connected sensors on agricultural groundwater pumps in California achieved high correlation (R² = 0.706) with flow meters, and a prototype blockchain-based groundwater trading platform was developed to support sustainable groundwater management.
ACS ES&T WaterSensor Networks
Turn up the Dial: System Dynamics Modeling of Resource Allocations toward Rural Water Supply Maintenance in East Africa
System dynamics models calibrated with data from 245 sensor-monitored boreholes show that increasing repair budgets in Turkana County from 30% to 85% could yield an additional 83 working boreholes and 95% functionality by 2030.
Journal of Environmental EngineeringSystems Modeling
Using Feedback to Improve Accountability in Global Environmental Health and Engineering
Emerging sensor technologies and performance-based contracting can enhance accountability and long-term sustainability of engineered environmental health interventions in low-income settings.
Environmental Science & TechnologyMonitoring & Accountability
Validation and Intercomparison of Satellite-Based Rainfall Products over Africa with TAHMO In Situ Rainfall Observations
Six years of rain gauge data from 596 TAHMO stations validated satellite rainfall products across Africa, with CHIRPS showing 15.5% daily bias and GSMaP_wGauge the lowest at 0.7%, and satellite RMSE increasing 0.6–1.3 mm per 1-km elevation gain.
Journal of HydrometeorologyRemote Sensing
The Association Between Rainfall, Temperature, and Reported Drinking Water Source: A Multi-Country Analysis
Multi-country analysis across The Gambia, Mozambique, Pakistan, and Kenya found that higher temperatures were associated with decreased access to basic drinking water, highlighting climate-driven vulnerabilities in water service delivery.
GeoHealthClimate & Water
Monitoring Methods for Systems-Strengthening Activities Toward Sustainable Water and Sanitation Services in Low-Income Settings
Reviews systems approaches and evaluation methodologies for WASH programs in East Africa, presenting early findings from outcome mapping and system-wide assessments within the USAID-funded Sustainable WASH Systems Learning Partnership.
MDPI SustainabilityWASH Systems
Sensor Informed Predictive Model for Total Organic Carbon and Nutrients on the Upper Yampa River
Machine learning integrating in-situ fluorescent dissolved organic matter sensors with high-resolution land use data predicts total organic carbon and nitrogen in the Upper Yampa River, achieving prediction errors under 8% with very high-resolution inputs.
ACS ES&T WaterWater Quality Sensors

Watershed Restoration

4 publications

Research on applying carbon market mechanisms and climate-based financing to improve water quality and resilience across US watersheds.

The Nature-Based Paradigm Shift: Identifying and Overcoming Barriers to Sustainable Water Quality Solutions
Mixed-methods research examining obstacles and opportunities for implementing nature-based approaches to water quality improvement across the United States, finding that regulatory constraints and funding availability were consistently identified as primary barriers by water managers, officials, regulators, and landowners.
ACS ES&T WaterNature-Based Solutions
Development and evaluation of a digital behavioral economics game towards improved understanding of groundwater conservation in southern Colorado
A digital behavioral economics game using San Luis Valley data examined groundwater consumption and conservation practices, finding that financial incentives significantly influenced participants’ crop choices and water use patterns, while transparency promoted collaborative behaviors toward aquifer restoration.
PLOS WaterGroundwater Conservation
Mitigating Wildfire Impact on Water Quality through Climate-Based Financing: A Case Study of the Provo River Watershed
Wildfire in a single subwatershed corresponds to ~350 metric tonnes of CO&sub2;e emissions annually from increased water treatment energy, with potential carbon credit revenue of $88,500 per year and ~$200 million nationally to fund wildfire mitigation.
ACS ES&T WaterWildfire & Water Quality
Leveraging the Voluntary Carbon Market to Improve Water Resilience in the Colorado and Mississippi River Basins
Water projects in the Mississippi and Colorado River basins could generate over 45 million carbon credits annually, potentially attracting approximately $4.5 billion in investments over the next decade to improve water resilience.
MDPI WaterCarbon Markets